Read Part One of the article here.
The Sacred Qualities of River Water
The Bhāratīya understanding of rivers extended beyond geography and nomenclature to encompass the intrinsic qualities of river water. Ancient texts meticulously documented the properties that made river water not merely drinkable, but therapeutically valuable. These attributes demonstrate a sophisticated understanding of hydrology and medicine that emerged from centuries of observation and refinement.
The Caraka Saṃhitā and Suśruta Saṃhitā, the twin pillars of āyurvedic medicine, enumerated the beneficial qualities of river water as follows:
तज्जलगुणाः । स्वच्छत्वम् । लघुत्वम् । दीपनत्वम् । पाचनत्वम् । रुच्यत्वम् । तृष्णापहत्वम् । पथ्यत्वम् । मधुरत्वम् । ईषदुष्णत्वञ्च ॥
Taj-jala-guṇāḥ / Svacchatvam / Laghutvam / Dīpanatvam / Pācantvam / Rucyatvam / Tṛṣṇāpahtvam / Pathyatvam / Madhurtvam / Īṣad-uṣṇatvañ-ca
These qualities encompass clarity, lightness, digestive stimulation, facilitating proper digestion, palatability, quenching of thirst, wholesomeness, sweetness, and mild warmth. Such a comprehensive enumeration reflects a holistic view of water that integrates physical, medicinal, and spiritual dimensions.
Rivers as Cosmic Manifestations
The vaidika understanding of rivers transcended the merely physical, recognizing them as manifestations of cosmic principles. In the tenth maṇḍala, seventy-fifth sūkta of the Ṛgveda, rivers are extolled with reverence that captures their cosmological significance:
प्र सु व आपो महिमानमुत्तमं कारुचोचाति सदने विवस्वतः । प्र सप्तसप्त त्रेधा हि चक्रमुः प्र सृत्वरीणामति सिन्धुरोजसा ॥
Pra su va āpo mahimānam-uttamaṃ kāru-cochāti sadane vivasvataḥ / Pra sapta-sapta tredhā hi cakramuḥ pra sṛtvarīṇām-ati sindhurojasā
This hymn proclaims: "O Waters, I praise your greatness and might! This hymn is the most excellent and supreme, a song of praise. In the sacrificial house of the yajamāna (the one performing the sacrifice), the one who serves the radiant sun, I will speak gloriously of your greatness and power. The seven-sevens of rivers flow in three realms: the earth, the atmosphere, and the heavens, flowing in a threefold manner."
The reference to "seven-sevens for the rivers” reveals a profound cosmological vision. These rivers are understood as flowing through three distinct realms—the earthly, the atmospheric, and the celestial—representing the interconnectedness of all existence. Among these celestial rivers, the text particularly honors the Sindhu (Indus), called by the name Pūtanā, as flowing with incomparable strength and surpassing all other rivers.
The Classification of Rivers According to Direction and Qualities
The Rājanighaṇṭu, a classical text on the science of medicinal substances, developed an intricate classification system of rivers based on their directional flow and the consequent qualities they possessed. This system demonstrated a sophisticated understanding of how geography, climate, and water characteristics influenced health and well-being.
Rivers According to Direction
The text articulates the principle thus:
सर्व्वा गुर्व्वी प्राङ्मुखी वाहिनी स्याल्लघ्वी पश्चाद्वाहिनी निश्चयेन । देशे देशे तद्गुणा सा विशेषान्नैषा धत्ते गौरवं लाघवञ्च ॥
Sarvā gurvī prāṅ-mukhī vāhinī syāl-laghvi paścād-vāhinī niścayena / Deśe deśe tad-guṇā sā viśeṣān-naiṣā dhatte gauravaṃ lāghavañ-ca
This verse establishes that rivers flowing eastward are considered heavy in their water quality, while those flowing westward are deemed light. However, the text is careful to note that these qualities are not absolute—they manifest distinctly in different geographical regions, and individual rivers do not necessarily embody these characteristics uniformly throughout their courses.
Rivers According to Flow Characteristics
The rate of flow became another crucial determinant of a river's classification:
प्रायो मृदुवहा गुर्व्वो लघ्व्यः शीघ्रवहाः स्मृताः
Prāyo mṛdu-vahā gurvvo laghvyaḥ śīghra-vahāḥ smṛtāḥ
Rivers that flow slowly are considered heavy, while those that flow rapidly are classified as light. This classification system extended to rivers carrying different materials: those bearing stones and sand with clear waters were said to originate from the Himālayas, and their water was compared to nectar in its purity and life-giving properties.
Regional and Directional Therapeutic Effects
The sophistication of Bhāratīya natural philosophy is perhaps most evident in the classification based on the Vindhya Mountains and directional flow:
विन्ध्यात् प्राची प्राच्यवाची प्रतीची या चोदीची स्यान्नदी सा क्रमेण । वातारोग्यं श्लेष्मपित्तार्त्तिलोपं पित्तोद्रेकं पथ्यपाकञ्च धत्ते ॥
Vindhyāt prācī prācyavācī pratīcī yā cadīcī syān-nadī sā krameṇa / Vātārogyaṃ śleṣma-pittārti-lopaṃ pittodrekaṃ pathya-pākañ-ca dhatte
Rivers emanating from the Vindhya Mountains and flowing in different directions possessed specific therapeutic properties. Those flowing eastward benefited vāta-related ailments, those flowing westward alleviated disorders of kapha and pitta, while those flowing northward specifically reduced pitta aggravation and aided digestion.
This categorization reflects an understanding rooted in Āyurveda, where the three doṣas—vāta (wind), pitta (bile), and kapha (phlegm)—represent fundamental biological principles. By understanding which rivers balanced which doṣas in which seasons, the ancients created a practical guide for maintaining health through the wise use of water.
The Temporal and Seasonal Dimensions of River Water
Bhāratīya thought did not view rivers as static phenomena but as dynamic systems whose qualities changed with seasons:
सदावहायास्त्वनवद्यमुष्णं मरुत्कफानां शमनञ्च तस्याः । नीरं वसन्ते हितकृद्विशेषात् नदीभवं नैव हिमागमे च ॥
Sadā-vahāyās-tv-anavdya-muṣṇaṃ marut-kaphānāṃ śamanañ-ca tasyāḥ / Nīraṃ vasante hita-kṛd-viśeṣāt nadī-bhavaṃ naiva himā-game ca
Rivers that flowed continuously and without obstruction possessed warm water that soothed disorders of wind and phlegm. Particularly during spring, river water was deemed supremely beneficial, though its therapeutic properties diminished during winter. This recognition of seasonal variation demonstrates a systems-thinking approach, understanding rivers not as fixed entities but as living systems responsive to cosmic and terrestrial cycles.
The Dual Nature of Rivers and Mountains
The Kālikā Purāṇa presents a particularly fascinating metaphysical perspective on rivers, proposing that both rivers and mountains possess an inherent duality:
नद्यश्च पर्व्वताः सर्व्वे द्विरूपाश्च स्वभावतः । तोयं नदीनां रूपन्तु शरीरमपरन्तथा ॥
Nadyaś-ca parvatāḥ sarve dvi-rūpāś-ca svabhāvataḥ / Toyaṃ nadīnāṃ rūpanthu śarīram-aparantathā
Water constitutes one form of rivers, while the body (the riverbed and surrounding ecosystem) constitutes another. Similarly, mountains possess an external immobile form and an internal physical structure. This duality reveals a conception of rivers as living entities possessing both manifest and subtle dimensions.
The text elaborates further:
एवं जलं स्थावरश्च नदीपर्व्वतयोस्तथा ॥ अन्तर्व्वसति कायस्तु सततं नोपपद्यते
Evaṃ jalaṃ sthāvaraś-ca nadī-parvatayos-tathā / Antar-vasati kāyas-tu sataṃ nopapad-yate
"Similarly, rivers and mountains too have an external form in the water and the immovable structure, while the body within is not immediately apparent." This philosophical stance suggests that what we perceive of rivers—their water and physical form—represents only the manifest dimension of a reality that extends into deeper, imperceptible realms.
Moreover, rivers and mountains are understood as requiring constant nourishment to maintain their existence:
आप्याय्यते स्थावरेण शरीरं पर्व्वतस्य तु ॥ तथा नदीनां कायस्तु तोयेनाप्याय्यते सदा
Āpyāyyate sthāvareṇa śarīraṃ parvatasy-atu / Tathā nadīnāṃ kāyas-tu toyen-āpyāyyate sadā
"The body of a mountain is nourished by the immovable form, and the body of rivers is constantly nourished by the water." This vision portrays rivers not as objects to be exploited but as living beings dependent on a continuous supply of water, much as all living creatures depend on nourishment for survival. By this logic, damming rivers or diverting their waters represents a form of violence against these sacred entities.
The Kālikā Purāṇa further indicates that both rivers and mountains possess kāmarūpitva—the capacity to assume different forms:
नदीनां कामरूपित्वं पर्व्वतानान्तथैव च । जगत्स्थित्य पुरा विष्णुः कल्पयामास यत्नतः
Nadīnāṃ kāma-rūpitvaṃ parvatānān-athaiva ca / Jagat-sthityu purā viṣṇuḥ kalpyāmāsa yatnataḥ
"Rivers and mountains both have the capacity to assume various forms. Long ago, for the stability of the world, Viṣṇu thoughtfully created them this way." This recognition of fluidity and adaptability suggests that rivers, far from being static features of the landscape, are dynamic entities capable of transformation—an insight that modern hydrology confirms through our understanding of water cycles, erosion patterns, and geological change.
The text concludes with a poignant observation about the suffering of rivers:
तोयहानौ नदीदुःखं जायते सततं द्विजाः । विशीर्णे स्थावरे दुःखं जायते गिरिकायगम् ॥
Toya-hānau nadī-duḥkhaṃ jāyate satataṃ dvijāḥ / Viśīrṇe sthāvare duḥkhaṃ jāyate girī-kāya-gam
"Whenever there is a lack of water, rivers experience sorrow. Similarly, when the immobile form of the mountain is destroyed, it results in grief for the mountain." This extraordinary assertion—that rivers and mountains suffer when deprived of water or physically damaged—extends moral consideration to geographical features, anticipating contemporary environmental ethics by millennia.
The Upaniṣadic Vision of Water
The Upaniṣads, the philosophical culmination of the Vedas, approached water from a metaphysical perspective that sought to understand its fundamental nature. The Chāndogya Upaniṣad presents a profound meditation on how water transforms into different substances within the body:
आपः पीतास्त्रेधा विधीयन्ते तासां यः स्थविष्ठो धातुस्तन्मूत्रं भवति यो मध्यमस्तल्लोहितं योऽणिष्ठः स प्राणः ॥
Āpaḥ pītās-tredhā vidhīyante tāsāṃ yaḥ sthaviṣṭho dhātus-tan-mūtraṃ bhavati yo madhyamas-tal-lohitaṃ yo'ṇiṣṭhaḥ sa prāṇaḥ
"Water that is consumed is divided into three categories. The densest component becomes excretion, the medium component becomes blood, and the subtlest component becomes the vital breath (prāṇa)." This verse articulates a vision of water as the fundamental substance that, through metabolic transformation, gives rise to all the constituents of the body. Water is not merely a beverage but the very substance of life itself.
The same Upaniṣad further emphasizes this identity:
षोडशकलः सोम्य पुरुषः पञ्चदशाहानि माशीः काममपः पिबापोमयः प्राणो नपिबतो विच्छेत्स्यत इति ॥
Ṣoḍaśakalaḥ somya puruṣhaḥ pañcadaśāhāni māśīḥ kāmam-apaḥ pibā-pomayaḥ prāṇo na-pibato vicchetsy-ate iti
"A person is composed of sixteen parts, my dear. If one refrains from eating for fifteen days, one can still survive if one continues to drink water, for the vital breath (prāṇa) is made of water. The prāṇa will not be severed if water is not stopped." This teaching elevates water from the status of a mere nutritional necessity to the very substance of life force. Without water, the prāṇa—the vital animating principle—cannot persist.
Contemporary Relevance: Understanding Rivers in Our Time
As we face unprecedented challenges of water scarcity, climate change, and the degradation of river ecosystems, the Bhāratīya perspective offers profound wisdom. While we search for water on distant planets, the rivers of our own world cry out for protection and restoration.
The ancient understanding that rivers are living entities worthy of reverence and protection contrasts sharply with the modern industrial approach that has treated rivers as mere resources to be exploited. Dams, diversions, and pollution have reduced many of Bhārata's sacred rivers to shadows of their former vitality. The Yamunā and Gaṅgā, immortalized in countless devotional texts and practices, face existential crises due to uncontrolled development and industrial contamination.
Yet within the Bhāratīya tradition lies not merely a critique of exploitation but a vision of sustainable relationships. The recognition that rivers require constant nourishment, that their health directly impacts human health, and that they possess intrinsic value independent of utility—these insights provide a philosophical foundation for modern river conservation.
Furthermore, the classification systems developed in texts like the Rājanighaṇṭu reveal that our ancestors understood the profound ways in which environmental factors influence health and well-being. The quality of water varies with its source, its direction of flow, and the season of the year. This systemic thinking offers guidance as we seek to restore and protect our rivers for future generations.
Conclusion
The Bhāratīya civilization developed an understanding of rivers that was simultaneously practical and profound, scientific and sacred. Rivers were recognized as essential to life, carefully classified according to their characteristics, understood for their medicinal properties, and venerated as cosmic manifestations worthy of reverence. This holistic vision integrated geography, medicine, philosophy, and spirituality into a comprehensive framework that allowed for both the utilization of rivers and their protection.
As we confront the water crisis of our time, this ancient wisdom calls us to reimagine our relationship with rivers. No longer can we view them as mere infrastructural resources or economic assets. The Bhāratīya tradition invites us to recognize rivers as living beings, as manifestations of cosmic principle, and as essential partners in the great work of sustaining all life on Earth. In recovering this perspective, we may yet find the wisdom necessary to ensure that the rivers of Bhārata—and indeed all rivers—continue to flow with vitality for countless generations to come.
