In Search of Jñāna Mārga, Part 1

On 19th June of this year, the Hon’ble Prime Minister of India inaugurated Nav Nalanda University. Looking at this magnificent university, Prime Minister Modi said, “Nalanda University is a symbol of India’s academic heritage.” And I thought, What is the origin of India’s academic heritage? How and when did we learn the principles on which India is moving towards becoming a world guru today? While studying, I realized that this knowledge tradition is not limited to Nalanda but is much more ancient than that. And then the search for this path of knowledge began.

In India, the learned and intellectual community has given the concept of ‘education’ or ‘knowledge’ a very important place in human life. The cultural progress of a society can be reviewed only by looking at the educational progress of the society.

Science is considered the ‘third eye,’ (tṛtīya netra), and it is strongly believed that this science eye can see what cannot be seen by two human eyes. ‘Education’ never ends but is a lifelong process. Even once the association of the Guru ends, vidyā remains. It has been said that man progresses by learning, and without learning, man is like a beast—without learning, an animal.

Jñānapīṭhas were created in ancient India with the view that along with the personal development of the individual, social and national development and welfare would also increase.

Education was highly valued in Vaidika times, as it was considered the path to knowledge, spirituality, and liberation. Vaidika texts such as the Upaniṣads emphasize acquiring knowledge from a qualified teacher and learning with devotion.

In the entire literature of ancient India, the word education has been used in two meanings: broad and narrow. In the broad sense, education is a lifelong process, and it was assumed that every person is a lifelong student. In the narrow sense, it indicated the education that a person received before joining his/her profession. The word education has been used for the first time in the Upaniṣads. This word is made from the word root √śikṣ. It means learning. In the Upaniṣads, this word has been used in both the broad and narrow meanings mentioned above. At one place it is also mentioned that learning the pronunciation of words and letters is education. This means that here, education was used in a narrow form. But at other places, education not only included knowledge of words and letters but also included the development of spiritual qualities like religion, kindness, charity, etc. On this basis, the aim of education was said to be ultimate liberation. In the Upaniṣads, only such knowledge was said to be complete, which is achieved by the seeker in attaining the knowledge of Brahman. On this basis, the person who knew Brahman attains the ultimate goal.

In ancient literature, vidyā is divided into two parts, parā and aparā. There was no mutual opposition between these two, but parā vidyā has been said to be important for worldly life and aparā vidyā for spiritual life. The authority of aparā vidyā was not given to any person other than the son and the disciple. It is said in the Upaniṣads that a person who is active, devout, and observes the prescribed fasts is entitled to aparā vidyā. In this way, this knowledge was transmitted through the guru-disciple tradition. This knowledge is believed to have flowed from the gods to humans in a prescribed chain. The purpose of describing it like this was probably that this knowledge was prestigious and had public importance.

The main objective of ancient education in India was to transform a two-legged creature into a human being. It is clear that in ancient India every aspect of social life and all human activities were linked to religion. This was the reason why the knowledge of spirituality was considered the best among all the sciences. Knowledge through practice, meditation through knowledge, and renunciation of the fruits of action through meditation were said to be the best because they led to immediate peace. The highest objective of education was to develop the complete personality of man. It is also true that the ancient concept of development was completely different from the materialistic concept of development found in the present era. At that time, the meaning of development was to remain motivated in the worship of karma and to develop personality by purifying one’s conscience through the methods mentioned in the scriptures. In other words, the intensity of knowledge of the Supreme Being was considered an important criterion for the development of personality. Preservation of cultural heritage and promotion and dissemination of culture were included in the objectives of education. Education was closely linked to morality. No matter how great a person is, it was only as long as he remained modest, that he would have respect in society. Even a person who had studied all the Vedas but had no morality, would not have achieved fame. It is also said that if a brāhmaṇa takes pride in his knowledge, resorts to useless arguments, takes more interest in logic, and tries to gain victory by talking useless arguments in the gathering of gentlemen; and if he does not propose methods as per the scriptures, then he is not entitled to charity. If a person considers himself self-educated and a scholar and tries to steal the fame of another, then he is considered guilty of brāhmaṇa murder. It was said that it was necessary to use knowledge along with the method of the scriptures because the one who did the work, ignoring the method of the scriptures, would neither get success nor happiness. The objectives of education included determining what should be considered evidence. When the situation of duty and non-duty came, the scriptures were considered as proof. Not only this, when any doubt arose regarding religion or etiquette, the actions of learned brāhmaṇas were considered exemplary.

The education system of the Vaidika period in ancient India was centered around the concept of the guru-disciple tradition, where students lived and learned with their teachers in a family-like environment. The curriculum was broad and included mathematics, astronomy, ethics, spirituality, and practical skills such as agriculture, commerce, and art.

In Vaidika times, education was considered a sacred activity, and the process of learning was seen as a spiritual journey. The Vedas, the oldest sacred scriptures of Hinduism, place great emphasis on education. Education in Saṃskṛta is called vidyā, meaning knowledge, and avidyā, meaning ignorance. The aim of education was to help individuals overcome ignorance and acquire knowledge.

A famous Saṃskṛta quote says-

विद्या ददाति विनयम्
Knowledge brings humility

Taittiriya Upaniṣad 2.1.1

Oral tradition was an important aspect of the Vaidika education system. Students were expected to internalize hymns, stories, and poems that were considered the foundation of cultural and religious knowledge. This helped in the preservation of cultural heritage and continuity of tradition from generation to generation.

Apart from the traditional system of education, the Vaidika age also saw the development of schools of philosophical thought such as Sāṅkhya and Yoga. These schools strongly emphasized the acquisition of self-knowledge and spiritual knowledge. Many young men left their families to become wandering ascetics, and studied and trained in self-discipline and spirituality in monasteries.

The Stone Age man was increasing his intelligence through his daily activities. We are yet to find evidence of how education was transmitted in the Sindhu Sarasvati Civilization. But if the path of knowledge is to be sought, the first stage we reach is the Vaidika period. The etymology of the word Veda is proved by adding the suffix घञ् from the root ‘विद ज्ञाने’ which means knowledge. It means ‘knowledge’. Hence the word Veda means ‘sum or collection of knowledge’.

सत्तायां विद्यते ज्ञाने वेत्ति विन्ते विचारणे । विन्दते विन्दति प्राप्तौ श्यन्लुक्श्नम्शेष्विदं क्रमात् ।।

In his commentary on the Ṛkprātiśākhya, Viṣumitra explains the meaning of the Vedas:

द्यन्ते ज्ञायन्ते लभ्यन्ते एभिर्धर्मादिपुरुषार्था इति वेदाः

That is, the Vedas is what explains the existence of dharma, artha, kāma, and mokṣa, the four puruśārthas. Ancient administrators created the āśrama system to represent the time cycle of human life. In the Vaidika texts, there is a description of four āśramas - brahmacarya, gṛhastha, vānaprastha, and saṃnyāsa.

Brahmacarya was the period of study and celibacy. Gṛhastha āśrama was the period for fulfilling family and social responsibilities. The dharma of vānaprastha was a system of following the legal prohibitions mentioned in the scriptures. Saṃnyāsa āśrama was a step towards worshiping God by becoming detached from material desires. In this way, the ancient sages formulated the method through the āśrama system and divided the work through the varṇa system.

Under the āśrama system, the period for attaining celibate education was fixed. This stage started after the upanayana saṃskāra, and the celibate used to acquire knowledge while living in the house of the ācārya. For different castes like brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, and vaiśya, the ages of upanayana saṃskāra were eight, eleven, and twelve, respectively. During the teaching period, the students of guru-gṛha used to protect the guru’s livestock and agricultural wealth. References regarding celibacy rules are also available in Vaidika literature. According to Gopatha Brāhmaṇa, sleeping on the cot, singing, dancing, wandering aimlessly, and spitting were prohibited for the student. He also had to follow many rules and regulations. According to Manu - samidha collection, samidha donation, alms giving, renunciation of bed, guru śravaṇa, daily bath, devarṣi-pitṛ-tarpaṇa, etc. were included in the celibate rules.

Mostly this brahmacarya āśrama, or study period of the students, lasted for 12 years. The state of celibacy ended with the samāvartana saṃskāra. Thereafter, after receiving the graduation degree, the student was admitted to gṛhasthāśrama. Some celibates lived in the guru’s house throughout their lives and studied. They were called naiṣṭika.Similarly, like men, women also had the right to study the Vedas. This is confirmed by the religious texts of that time. In Gobhila Gṛha-Sūtra, the new bride has been shown wearing yajñopavita at the time of marriage. In the Aśvalāyana Gṛha-Sūtra, samāvartana saṃskāra has been imagined for women also. Harita has imagined the same formal upanayana saṃskāra for brahmavādini women, as for men; and at the time of marriage, for sadyovadhu (sadhvaṃstrī) women. This indicated that the woman used to study Vedas as celibates.

Under the varṇa system, the responsibility of progress and development of education was handed over to the brāhmaṇas. This class lived a life of sacrifice, restraint, and meditation; and was engaged in the work of study and teaching. It was because of discharging this important social responsibility that the brāhmāṇa class was intolerable, unavoidable, undesirable, and inevitable. He has been described as originating from the mouth of Puruṣa. They were exempted from state tax because of their teaching work.

The varṇāśrama system was a continuous source of progress and upgradation of ancient education. Under the varṇa system, the Brāhmaṇa class used to spread education through dedicated mothers, and under the āśrama system, the dvija-gaṇas were disciplined in the practice of celibacy and studied diligently while staying close to the guru. In this way, the ārya sages have determined the definite direction of study and teaching under the social system.

During the Vaidika period, the stages of education are divided into gṛha and gurukula.

Among educational rites chronologically, vidyārambha or akṣara-samikaraṇa is the foremost rite. Scholars are of the opinion that this rite should be performed around the fifth year, when children start primary education and start learning letters. If this rite is not performed in the fifth year due to some unforeseen difficulties, then it should be performed at least before munja, according to Bṛhaspati. The fact that the fifth year is the best time to start primary education, which has now become a consensus, seems to have been agreed by our educationists earlier. This rite to be done every year at the beginning of children’s education is naturally very simple and easy. In Uttarāyaṇa, on an auspicious time, the guru should be called home; he should make the child worship Śrī Vināyaka, Sarasvatī Devī, the kula-svamī, and Sūtrakāra; and then the guru should take the child’s hand and write his initials on rice with a silver or gold pen. Few scholars are of the opinion that homa should be performed on this occasion. But that opinion was not agreed upon by all scholars. At the end of the rites, the invited sages were fed and offered dakṣiṇā to the guru.

Although the initiation rite is the first in a person’s life, it is not historically as ancient as the upanayana. All the texts in which its description is found are very ancient, i.e., from the last 800-900 years. There is no trace of this saṃskāra in the Gṛhya-Sūtra texts, where all interpretations of saṃskāras are found. In the Gṛhya-Sūtra texts, 40 rites are generally found enunciated, in which even trivial events such as gṛha-niṣkramaṇa or annapraśana are exalted by the sacred spirit of the rite. But a very important event like vidyārambha, for a person or for society, is not found to be included in the necessary rituals.

It is not very difficult to solve the mystery of why this happened. Gṛhya-Sūtra kāla is about 700 to 200 BC, but the rites enunciated in the Gṛhya-Sūtra texts date back to much earlier times. At least this is literally true in the case of upanayana saṃskāra, as can be seen from the description of that saṃskāra found in the Atharvaveda. Since upanayana saṃskāra has been a tradition in the society since ancient times, there was no need to recite another Saṃskāra for the students first.

द्वितीयजन्मनः पूर्वमारभेताक्षरान् सुधीः ।

Although this Bṛhaspati verse suggests that the akṣara-samikaraṇa or vidyārambha rite was distinct from the upanayana, two such distinct rites were in vogue in the Vaidika period. The reason for this is that people did not know the existence of akṣara at that time. It is not possible here to consider chronologically the question of when the script became known to the Hindus. There is much cultural and anecdotal evidence that Hindus had knowledge of script during the Brahmanic period, but there is still no evidence that writing was known during the Vaidika period. Writing was not known in the earliest Vaidika period. At that time, the custom of learning Mūḷākṣara, which was different from upanayana, did not become common in society. Education started at the time of upanayana. The language was the common vernacular; grammar-science was not even a trace yet; writing was also there, and it was to come in preaching. At that time, naturally, primary education started with recitation of Vedic mantras instead of writing. Vedic literature was highly revered by the āryas, so upanayana was prescribed as a religious rite when they began to study it. Apart from that, people did not feel the necessity of rituals like Arvācīna vidyārambha-saṃskāra at that time.

After some time the script came into vogue, and later there was a difference between mantra language and practical speech; thus grammar was born. As a result, it seemed necessary to give some elementary education before starting to recite Vaidika mantras. When this necessity started to appear, the society started to feel that there should be a unique rite like vidyārambha. Hindus have a very ancient tendency to give a new twist to the old or to indulge in it. The practice of completing akṣara-savikaraṇa samskāra at the time of Chaula, i.e., Śeṇḍī Saṃskāra, was first introduced in the society.

वृत्तचोलकर्मा लिपि संख्यानं चोपयुंजीत।

Arthaśāstra 1,2

निवृत्तचो- लकर्मणोश्च तयोस्त्रयीवर्जमितरास्तिस्रो विद्याः सावधानेन मनसा परि- निष्ठापिताः।

Uttaramacarita, issue 2

Evidence like these support the above statement. It is not too difficult to solve the puzzle of how Cholakarma and vidyārambha saṃskāra have been put together. Chaulakarma was performed around the fifth year. At the time of cholakarma, the number of shins and jaws to be kept depended on the gotra and Pravarasaṅkhyā -

यथषि शिखां निदधाति ।

Ashva. Goo. Su. 16.6

दक्षिणतः कपदों वसिष्ठानामुभमतो भार्गवकाश्यपानां पंचचूडा अंगिरसाम् ।

Varaha Gr. Su. 4

Gotrarishi and Pravarrishi were believed to be very closely related to the scholarly tradition of that family. Then the deficiency of vidyārambha saṃskāra started to be filled by completing that saṃskāraat the time of the first Chaulakarma. A few centuries later, the opinion that it is desirable to have a separate rite for the initiation of students started to strengthen, and for that the rite described above was promoted. As this happened very late, this rite does not end in ancient texts such as the Gṛhya-Sūtra; it is found in Arvācīna Gharmanibandha only. Vidyārambha saṃskāra is an interesting and instructive example of how rites used to be more or less necessary in our religion.

Next comes the ancient rite of Hinduism, which is the upanayana saṃskaāra. And we will see it in the next part.

Read next part.

References

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